Final exam topics

1. Spinal cord. Neurological localisation. (structure of gray matter, major tracts of posterior, lateral, anterior columns, symptomatology of spinal cord damage localisation, symptomatology of acute spinal cord transsection – time course. Syringomyelia, Brown-Séquard syndrome)

2. Muscle tone and its disturbances. (regulators of muscle tone: gamma loop, brain stem, cerebellum, basal ganglia, hypotonia, rigidity and spasticity and their causes)

3. Types of reflexes. Pathological reflexes. (tendon reflexes: reflex arch, superficial reflexes: reflex arch, reflexes associated with pyramidal laesion, frontal liberation reflexes)

4. Medulla. Neurological localisation. (macroscopic anatomy, passing tracts, cranial nerve nuclei, medial and lateral medullary syndrome)

5. Pons. Neurological localisation. (macroscopic anatomy, passing tracts, cranial nerve nuclei, symptoms of pons damage)

6. Mesencephalon. Neurological localisation. (macroscopic anatomy, passing tracts, cranial nerve nuclei, symptoms of mesenchephalon damage, Weber syndrome)

7. Cranial nerves – except n. II, III, IV, VI. (anatomy, nuclei, function, symptoms of damage).

8. Cranial nerves III, IV, VI. Pupillary reactions. (anatomy, nuclei, function, symptoms of damage of nerves III, IV and VI, pupillary reflex arch, causes of myosis and mydriasis)

9. EEG and evoked potentials. (physiology of EEG, wave types, indications of EEG, physiology of VEP, AEP and SSEP, their indications)

10. Frontal lobe. Neurological localisation. (anatomy, functions, symptoms of frontal lobe damage/excitation)

11. Corticospinal tract. Neurological localisation. (anatomy of corticospinal tract, function, symptoms of laesion, pathological reflexes associated to pyramidal tract damage)

12. Differential diagnosis of central and peripheral palsy. (motor system – upper and lower motor neuron – anatomy, function, cranial nerves, spinal nerves, central and peripheral palsy)

13. Extrapyramidal system. Neurological localisation. (basal ganglia, interconnection, function, chorea, ballism, parkinsonism – symptoms, localisation)

14. Parietal lobe. Neurological localisation. (anatomy, functions, symptoms of parietal lobe damage/excitation)

15. Thalamus. Neurological localisation. (anatomy, function, lesion symptoms)

16. Temporal lobe. Neurological localisation. (anatomy, functions, symptoms of temporal lobe damage/excitation)

17. Limbic system. Neurological localisation. (anatomy of the limbic system – Papez ring, interconnections, symptoms of laesion, Korsakoff syndrome)

18. Occipital lobe. Neurological localisation. (anatomy, functions, symptoms of occipital lobe damage/excitation)

19. Optic system. Neurological localisation. (receptors, afferents, centers, laesion symptoms in various parts of the optic system, main causes)

20. CT and MRI scans in neurology practice. (basic physics of these methods, indications, comparison of CT and MRI scans in neurology, appearance of most common laesions – bleeding, ischaemia, tumor)

21. PET, SPECT, arteriography (DSA) and doppler ultrasound in neurology practice. (basic physics of PET, SPECT, DSA and doppler ultrasound, indications in neurology)

22. ENG and EMG in neurology practice. (ENG, EMG: how it is done, indications, interpretation of results. Repetitive nerve stimulation, indications)

23. Cerebrospinal fluid: production, circulation, absorbtion and its disturbances. (CSF: composition, production, circulation, absorption, types of hydrocephalus and their diagnosis)

24. Facial palsy. (facial nerve upper and lower motor neuron – anatomy, causes of central facial palsy, causes of peripheral facial palsy, symptoms of central and peripheral facial palsy)

25. Supranuclear gaze disturbances. (nuclei of cranial nerves involved in eye movements, FLM, pontine gaze center, frontal horizontal gaze center, laesion symptoms, Parinaud syndrome)

26. Alteration of vigility. Brain death. (physiology of vigility, definition of somnolence, stupor, coma, GCS, alteration of vigility due to brain stem/cortical damage, differentiation, brain death)

27. Cerebellum. Neurological localisation. (functional anatomy of cerebellum – vestibulocerebellum, spinocerebellum, cerebrocerebellum – input, output, function, cerebellar symptoms)

28. Aphasias. (definition, motor aphasia, sensory aphasia, anomic aphasia, conduction aphasia, global aphasia – symptoms, localisation of the lesion)

29. Sensory system and its disturbances. (spinothalamic and Goll-burdach tracts: anatomy, function, laesion symptoms, syringomyelia, dorsal column symptoms)

30. Functional anatomy of the autonomic system and its disturbances. (anatomy of sympathetic and parasympathetic system – preganglionar neuron, postganglionar neuron, neurotransmitters, receptors, effects on different organs, symptoms of the lesions)

31. Brain circulation. (basic characteristics of brain circulation, regulation of global and local perfusion, symptoms of circulatory disturbances in the brain – ACA, MCA, PCA, VB)

32. Lumbar puncture, indications, lab tests. (indications, contraindications, composition of normal CSF, pathological CSF – SAH, meningitis, encephalitis, TB, Guillain-Barré syndrome, multiple sclerosis)

33. Referral of neurology patients. Evidence based medicine. (the logic of referral, definition of evidence based medicine, levels of evidence, guidelines)


34. Basic neurogenetics. (examples for neurological diseases of genetic origin - AR, AD, X-linked and mitochondrial inheritance)

35. Disturbances of brainstem circulation. Clinical syndromes. (major branches of vertebral and basilar arteries: symptoms of PICA, AICA, SCA syndrome, symptoms of basilar occlusion)

36. Sleep and its disturbances. (physiology of sleep, EEG, insomnias, parasomnias, hypersomnias)

37. Mechanisms of Parkinsonism, symptoms (mechanism of substantia nigra degeneration, histological markers, major symptoms of Parkinsonism, other symptoms)

38. Treatment of Parkinson's disease. (drugs – mechanism of action – levodopa, DA-receptor agonists, MAO-B and COMT enzyme inhibitors, amantadine, anticholinerg agents; advantages, disadvantages, therapeutic strategy. Treatment of late Parkinsonism: continuous levodopa substitution, DBS)

39. Parkinson syndromes and neurodegenerative disorders associated with Parkinsonism. (types: drug-induced, vascular – characteristics of PSP, MSA, CBD, DLBD briefly)

40. Essential tremor. Wilson's disease, Huntington's chorea, dystonia, myoclonus. (symptoms, causes, diagnostics, therapy)

41. Differentiation of ataxias. (spinal, cerebellar, frontal ataxia, most common causes, characteristics of Friedreich's ataxia)

42. Brain tumors. Clinical symptoms. (types of brain tumors – metastases, primary brain tumors, most common symptoms)

43. Symptoms of increased intracranial pressure. (causes, symptoms, herniations – subfalcine, transtentorial, foraminal)

44. Types of brain oedema, therapy. (types: cytotoxic, vasogenic, interstitial, osmotic, mechanism, treatment options)

45. Pituitary tumors. (types, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment)

46. Pontocerebellar lesions, vestibular Schwannoma (causes, symptomatology; vestibular Schwannoma: symptoms, diagnostics, therapy)

47. Traumatic injury of the CNS. (commotio cerebri, contusio cerebri, epidural, subdural and subarachnoid bleeding; spinal cord traumas, symptomatology of spinal cord transsection)

48. Intervertebral disc disorders. (symptomatology of root and spinal cord involvement, symptomatology of C5,6,7,8 and L4,5,S1 radicular lesions, diagnostic tools, indication of acute surgery, conus and cauda syndrome)

49. Classification of cerebrovascularis diseases, risk factors. (ischemic and hemorrhagic conditions, definitions, risk factors)

50. Transient ischemic attack. (definition, symptomatology – ICA, ACA, MCA, PCA, VB territory, diagnostic round-up, therapy)

51. Ischemic stroke. (definition, symptomatology – ICA, ACA, MCA, PCA, VB territory, diagnostic round-up)

52. Intraparenchymal cerebral bleeding. (causes, risk factors, symptoms, diagnostic tools, therapy, typical and atypical localisation, rarer causes)

53. Therapy of ischemic stroke. (acute treatment: thrombolysis, thrombectomy – indications, contraindications; antiaggregation and anticoagulation in ischemic stroke, importance of atrial fibrillation)

54. Sinus thrombosis. (anatomy of the venous system of the brain, sinus thrombosis: etiology, symptoms, diagnostics, treatment)

55. Subarachnoid hemorrhage. (causes, types, symptoms, diagnostic approach, conservative and surgical treatment options)

56. ALS. Bulbar and pseudobulbar palsy. (ALS - epidemiology, patomechanism, symptoms, diagnostics, treatment options. Bulbar and pseudobulbar palsy – definition, differentiation)

57. Myopathies. (symptoms, diagnostics, main causes of myopathies (toxic, metabolic, endocrine, inherited), Pompe's and Fabry's disease)

58. Myositis, muscle dystrophies. (main causes of myositis – immunological, infectious agent, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, dystrophia myotonica)

59. Myasthenia syndrome. (Myasthenia gravis: epidemiology, pathomechanism, symptoms, diagnostics, therapy, myasthenic crisis, Lambert-Eaton myasthenoid syndrome)

60. Bacterial meningitis. (pathomechanism, most common causes, symptoms, diagnostics, treatment, meningitis basilaris tuberculosa, CSF results)

61. Viral meningitis. (pathomechanism, most common causes, symptoms, diagnostics, treatment, CSF results)

62. Encephalitis. (pathomechanism, most common causes, symptoms, diagnostics, treatment, herpes encephalitis, limbic encephalitis CSF results)

63. Slow manifesting neuroinfective disorders. (viral infections: SSPE, PML, Rubeola, HIV encephalopathy, prions: CJD pathomechanism, symptoms, diagnostics)

64. Cerebral abscess. (pathomechanism, causes, symptoms, diagnostics, treatment options)

65. Herpes zoster. Treatment of neuropathic pain. (pathomechanism, causes, symptoms, diagnostics, treatment options, postherpetic neuralgia and neuropathic pain: treatment options)

66. Multiple sclerosis: pathomechanism, symptoms, diagnosis. (causes, symptoms, diagnostic criteria, disease activity follow up)

67. Multiple sclerosis: therapy. (treatment of the acute relapse, agents modifying disease activity: just the names of medications, symptomatic therapy: chronic pain, spasticity, fatigue, mood disorders, vegetative disorders, intention tremor, definition of primary progressive multiple sclerosis, therapy)

68. Vitamin B12 deficiency (vitamin B12 in the metabolism, causes of deficiency, neurological complications, diagnostics, treatment)

69. Lues cerebrospinalis. Neuroborreliosis. (neurological complications of lues: meningitis, neurovascularis syphilis, tabes dorsalis, paralysis progressiva. Borreliosis: clinical picture, neurological consequences)

70. Epileptic seizure. (definition, causes of seizures – provoked, withdrawal, epilepsy, classification of seizures, treatment)

71. Epilepsy: classification, diagnostics. (definition of epilepsy, epidemiology, etiology classification, diagnostic steps after an epileptic seizure)

72. Epilepsy: therapy. (classification of drugs by mechanism of action: Na+ channel blockers, GABA-ergic drugs, Ca++ channel blockers, Glutamate antagonists, other mechanism – few characteristics of the most important drugs in each group, general considerations of pharmacotherapy, pharmacoresistance, surgical approach)

73. Status epilepticus. (definition, forms, most common causes, diagnostic approach, treatment strategy)

74. Types of headache. (most common primary headaches, most common secondary headaches, red flag sings in headache patients)

75. Migraine and its pharmacotherapy. (definition, symptoms, pathomechanism, diagnostics, treatment of the acute attack, prophylactic therapy)

76. Cluster headache and tension-type headache. Pathomechanism and therapy. (definition, symptoms, pathomechanism, diagnostics, treatment of the acute attack, prophylactic therapy)

77. Neurological complication of alcohol consumption. (acute intoxication, consequences of chronic consumption: delirium tremens, convulsion, Wernicke encephalopathy, Korsakoff syndrome, cerebral and cerebellar atrophy dementia, polyneuropathy, indirect consequences: traumas, hepatic encephalopathy, apoplexia)

78. Neurocognitive disorders, differentiation. Alzheimer's disease. Normal pressure hydrocephalus. (definition of dementia, classification by treatment options, Alzheimer's disease – symptoms, cause, diagnostics, treatment, NPH – symptoms, cause, diagnostics, treatment)

79. Guillain-Barré syndrome. (definition, symptoms, pathomechanism, diagnostics, treatment options, CSF results, Miller Fisher variant)

80. Neurological complication of HIV. (HIV - direct effects: meningitis, myelopathy, neuropathy, myopathy, HIV encephalopathy; HIV-caused immunodeficiency: infections, tumors)

81. Neuropathies. (definition, mononeuropathy, polyneuropathy, symptoms of polyneuropathies, diagnostics, most common causes: DM, alcohol, nutritional, immunological)

82. Trigeminal neuralgia. (definition, symptoms, classification, pathomechanism, diagnostics, treatment options)

83. Mechanisms of neurodegeneration. (definition, cellular mechanisms: the role of Ca++, glutamate, energy depletion, michochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, inflammation, interconnections)

84. Cellular consequences of ischemia. (neuronal metabolism, depletion of ATP, ion channels, glutamate, intracellular Ca++, mitochondria, free radicals, inflammation)

85. Neurorehabilitation. (definition, types, its place in patient care, status, aims, rehabilitation program, efficacy)

86. Emergency neurology in practice I. (most common neurological problems in the ER: alteration of consciousness, convulsions – diagnostic/therapeutic approach)

87. Emergency neurology in practice II. (most common neurological problems in the ER: headache, dizziness/vertigo – diagnostic/therapeutic approach)


1-33 topics: End semester topics.